Introduction
Balance of Power is one of the oldest and most influential concepts in the study of International Relations. It occupies a central position in the Realist tradition and is particularly important for explaining the behaviour of states in an anarchic international system.
At its simplest, balance of power refers to a distribution of power among states in which no state is allowed to become overwhelmingly dominant. States seek to maintain or restore such a balance through alliances, military preparedness, diplomacy, territorial adjustments and other instruments of statecraft.
The concept has been used both to describe a condition of equilibrium and a policy or mechanism through which states seek to maintain that equilibrium.
1. Meaning of Balance of Power
There is no universally accepted definition of balance of power. The term has several related meanings.
It may refer to:
an equilibrium or distribution of power among states;
a policy adopted by a state to prevent another state from becoming dominant;
a system of relations in which several states check one another;
a principle of international politics through which states respond to concentrations of power.
Thus, balance of power should not be understood simply as an equal distribution of military strength.
George Schwarzenberger
Schwarzenberger regarded balance of power as a particular arrangement of power relations in which states attempt to prevent any one power from achieving predominance.
Hans J. Morgenthau
For Morgenthau, the balance of power is an essential mechanism of international politics. Since states seek power and security in an international environment lacking a common superior authority, the accumulation of excessive power by one state encourages other states to counterbalance it.
Kenneth Waltz
Waltz provides a structural explanation. In an anarchic international system, states are concerned primarily with survival. When the distribution of capabilities becomes heavily concentrated, states have incentives to respond by balancing against the stronger power.
2. Balance of Power in Classical Realism
The concept is particularly important in Hans J. Morgenthau's classical realism.
According to Morgenthau, international politics is characterised by a struggle for power. States pursue their national interests, and power is a principal means through which those interests are protected.
The balance of power therefore performs two important functions:
Prevent concentration of power → Prevent domination → Preserve independence
Morgenthau did not regard balance of power as producing permanent peace. Rather, it can help limit the possibility of universal domination and maintain a degree of order in international politics.
3. Balance of Power and Neorealism
Kenneth Waltz reformulated balance-of-power theory in Theory of International Politics.
For Waltz, three characteristics are particularly important:
1. The international system is anarchic.
2. States are functionally similar units primarily concerned with survival.
3. States differ in their capabilities.
Because there is no central authority capable of guaranteeing their security, states must rely significantly on self-help.
Consequently, when one state or coalition becomes excessively powerful, other states may respond by balancing.
This is why Waltz considers balancing to be a systemic tendency, rather than merely the product of individual leaders' choices.
4. Balancing
Balancing is the principal mechanism through which the balance of power operates.
There are two major forms:
Internal balancing
A state increases its own capabilities.
Examples include:
increasing military expenditure;
developing advanced weapons;
strengthening the economy;
improving technological capabilities;
increasing military preparedness.
External balancing
A state strengthens its position by obtaining support from other states.
This may involve:
alliances;
defence agreements;
strategic partnerships;
diplomatic coalitions.
Internal balancing = strengthen oneself
External balancing = strengthen oneself through partners
5. Balancing and Bandwagoning
An important debate in IR concerns how weaker states respond to powerful states.
Balancing
A state joins with others or strengthens itself against the stronger or threatening power.
Bandwagoning
A weaker state may instead align with the stronger power, expecting benefits or protection.
Stephen M. Walt's Balance of Threat Theory is particularly important here. Walt argues that states respond not simply to power but to perceived threat.
Threat is influenced by:
aggregate power;
geographic proximity;
offensive capability;
perceived intentions.
Therefore, states may balance against the state they perceive as the greatest threat, rather than simply against the most powerful state.
6. Characteristics of Balance of Power
1. State-centric
Traditional balance-of-power theory gives primary importance to sovereign states.
2. Power-oriented
Military and economic capabilities are major determinants of a state's position.
3. Anarchic international system
The theory assumes that there is no world government above sovereign states.
4. Concern with survival
States seek to protect their independence and security.
5. Prevention of hegemony
The basic objective is to prevent one state from acquiring overwhelming power.
6. Dynamic character
The balance is constantly changing because states acquire or lose capabilities.
7. Alliance formation
States frequently use alliances as instruments of external balancing.
8. Flexible alliances
Alliances may change when interests and perceptions of threat change.
7. Instruments of Balance of Power
States have historically used several methods to maintain equilibrium.
(a) Alliances
States cooperate militarily and diplomatically to counter a powerful state.
(b) Armaments
Increasing military capabilities can deter potential aggression.
(c) Diplomacy
Negotiations and diplomatic arrangements can prevent excessive concentration of power.
(d) Territorial adjustments
Territorial settlements after wars may be designed to prevent the emergence of a dominant power.
(e) Buffer states
States located between major powers can sometimes reduce direct strategic confrontation.
(f) Intervention
Great powers may intervene in conflicts to prevent one side from acquiring excessive power.
8. Types of Balance of Power
A. Simple or bilateral balance
Two major powers or coalitions dominate the system.
The Cold War is the classic example of a bipolar structure involving the United States and the Soviet Union.
B. Multipolar balance
Several major powers possess significant capabilities.
The European state system during much of the 19th century is commonly used as an example.
C. Regional balance
The balancing process operates primarily within a particular geographical region.
D. Global balance
Power relationships are considered across the international system as a whole.
E. Direct balance
States directly strengthen themselves against another state.
F. Indirect balance
States use alliances or other actors to constrain a rival.
9. Balance of Power as a Condition and a Policy
A standard IR answer should distinguish these two meanings.
Balance of power as a condition
It describes a situation in which power is distributed sufficiently among states to prevent domination by one state.
Balance of power as a policy
It describes deliberate efforts by states to maintain or restore such a distribution of power.
Therefore:
> Balance of power can be both an outcome and a strategy.
10. Historical Development
European state system
Balance-of-power politics became particularly prominent in early modern Europe. States sought to prevent the domination of Europe by a single great power.
The rise of Louis XIV's France and later Napoleonic France encouraged coalitions designed to prevent French predominance.
Congress of Vienna, 1815
After the defeat of Napoleon, the European powers attempted to establish a stable European order.
The resulting Concert of Europe represented an important example of great-power consultation and balancing.
First World War
The European alliance system illustrates the importance of balance-of-power politics.
The major alignments were:
Triple Alliance
Triple Entente
However, it would be incorrect to argue that balance of power alone caused the First World War. Nationalism, imperialism, militarism, domestic politics and the immediate crisis also played important roles.
Cold War
The Cold War provides a classic example of bipolar power politics.
The United States and Soviet Union developed competing military and political blocs, while nuclear deterrence placed limits on direct confrontation.
11. Balance of Power and Security Dilemma
Balance-of-power politics is closely connected with the security dilemma.
Suppose State A increases its military strength for defensive purposes.
State B may interpret this increase as a threat and respond by increasing its own military strength.
This produces:
A increases security → B feels threatened → B increases security → A feels threatened
Thus, attempts to maintain a balance can sometimes produce arms races and greater insecurity.
12. Balance of Power and Collective Security
These concepts should not be confused.
Balance of Power Collective Security
Associated strongly with Realism Associated strongly with Liberal institutionalism
States balance against powerful/threatening states States collectively oppose aggression
Based largely on power and alliances Based on collective rules and institutions
Coalitions can change Collective commitment is intended to be general
Main concern is preventing domination Main concern is preventing aggression
The United Nations represents the institutional idea of collective security, although its actual functioning is affected by great-power politics.
13. Criticism of Balance of Power
Despite its importance, the theory has several limitations.
1. Ambiguous concept
"Balance" and "power" are difficult to define and measure precisely.
2. May cause arms races
Attempts to balance power can lead to continuous military competition.
3. Security dilemma
Defensive measures by one state can be interpreted as offensive preparations by another.
4. Possibility of war
Balancing does not necessarily prevent war. Rival states may miscalculate each other's capabilities or intentions.
5. Overemphasis on states
Traditional theory gives insufficient attention to:
international organisations;
multinational corporations;
transnational movements;
non-state actors.
6. Neglect of domestic factors
Domestic political institutions, ideology, leadership and public opinion may also shape foreign policy.
7. Nuclear weapons
Nuclear deterrence has complicated traditional balance-of-power calculations because even relatively limited nuclear capabilities can impose enormous costs.
14. Contemporary Relevance
Balance-of-power theory remains relevant because the international system continues to experience competition among major powers.
It is particularly useful for analysing:
great-power rivalry;
alliance formation;
military competition;
strategic partnerships;
deterrence;
regional security;
changes in the distribution of capabilities.
However, contemporary international politics cannot be explained by balance of power alone. Economic interdependence, international institutions, international law, domestic politics and non-state actors must also be considered.
Conclusion
The Balance of Power remains a foundational concept of International Relations because it explains how states respond to unequal distributions of power and attempts by potentially dominant states to acquire greater influence.
In Morgenthau's classical realism, it is connected with the struggle for power and national interest. In Waltz's neorealism, balancing emerges from the anarchic structure of the international system and the need of states to ensure survival. Stephen Walt's balance-of-threat theory further develops the argument by emphasising that states balance against perceived threats rather than simply against raw power.
Thus, the central logic can be expressed as:
> Concentration of power → Perception of threat → Balancing → Formation of countervailing power → Prevention of hegemony
Core standard references
Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace
Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics
E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919–1939
Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society
Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances
George Schwarzenberger, Power Politics
Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics
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