Below is an original set of notes based primarily on NCERT and government educational/archaeological resources, with the important archaeological sites, crops, animals, dates, terms, evidence and exam facts brought together. I have also distinguished secure dates from approximate or debated dates, because prehistoric dates can vary according to archaeological interpretation.
NCERT's Class 6 history chapter From Gathering to Growing Food covers the beginnings of farming and herding, domestication, settled life, archaeological evidence, Mehrgarh and Daojali Hading. NIOS also provides government educational material on prehistoric cultures, while the Archaeological Survey of India maintains dedicated resources on prehistoric archaeology.
1. From Hunting-Gathering to Farming and Herding
For thousands of years, humans obtained food by hunting animals, fishing and gathering plants. A major change occurred when people began to grow plants and rear animals.
This was not a sudden revolution. Different regions adopted farming and herding at different times.
Approximate chronology
Period/event Approximate date
Major climatic change after the last Ice Age c. 12,000 years ago
Early domestication and food production in several regions from c. 10,000 years ago
Early farming communities in the north-western subcontinent c. 7000 BCE and later
Neolithic communities in different parts of the Indian subcontinent broadly 7th–2nd millennium BCE, varying by region
Chalcolithic cultures broadly 3rd–2nd millennium BCE, varying by region
Important: There is no single date for the "beginning of farming" in India. Archaeological evidence shows a regional and gradual process.
2. Why Did People Become Farmers?
Around 12,000 years ago, the climate in many parts of the world became relatively warmer after the last Ice Age.
This resulted in:
Expansion of grasslands
Changes in vegetation
Increase and spread of certain animals
Greater availability of particular plants and seeds
People began observing the life cycles of plants.
They noticed that:
Seeds fell from plants.
New plants grew from seeds.
Some plants produced useful edible grains.
Plants could be deliberately grown near settlements.
Gradually, people began cultivating plants themselves.
Important concept
Climate change → observation of plants → cultivation → food production → settled communities
3. How Did People Become Herders?
People also began developing closer relationships with animals.
They learned that certain animals could be:
Attracted with food
Tamed
Protected
Kept near human settlements
Bred and reared
Over time, people began keeping animals such as:
Sheep
Goats
Cattle
Pigs
Dogs
The dog and its wild ancestor have a particularly early history of domestication, although the exact date and pathway of dog domestication remain subjects of archaeological research.
4. What Is Domestication?
Domestication is the process through which humans gradually selected, managed, bred and cared for particular plants and animals for their own use.
Plant domestication involved:
Selecting useful plants
Growing them deliberately
Saving seeds
Replanting them
Protecting crops
Animal domestication involved:
Taming animals
Providing food
Protecting them
Controlling breeding
Keeping herds
Examples
Plants: wheat, barley, rice, millets, pulses
Animals: sheep, goat, cattle, pig, dog
5. Why Did Farming Lead to Settled Life?
A hunter-gatherer could move when food resources became scarce.
A farmer, however, had to remain near the fields for long periods.
Farmers had to:
Sow seeds
Water crops where necessary
Remove weeds
Protect crops from birds
Protect crops from animals
Wait for crops to mature
Harvest the grain
Store surplus food
Therefore, farming encouraged people to stay in one place for longer periods.
Result
Agriculture → permanent/longer-term settlements → villages
6. Storage of Food
Once people produced food, they needed to store it.
Archaeological evidence includes:
Large clay pots
Baskets
Storage pits
Storage rooms
Granaries in later complex societies
Storage was important because:
Food had to be preserved between harvests.
Seeds had to be saved for the next crop.
Surplus food could be kept for times of shortage.
7. New Tools of Farmers and Herders
Neolithic communities developed tools different from many earlier Palaeolithic tools.
Important Neolithic tools
Polished stone axes
Celts
Adzes
Grinding stones
Mortars
Pestles
Bone tools
Why were grinding stones important?
They were used to:
Grind grains
Process plant foods
Prepare flour and other food products
Some earlier types of stone tools continued to be used alongside new Neolithic technologies.
8. Pottery
Settled communities increasingly needed containers for:
Storing grain
Storing water
Cooking food
Carrying materials
This encouraged the development of pottery.
Exam point
Pottery + food storage + settled life are important associations with Neolithic communities.
9. Weaving
With settled life, people increasingly used plant and animal fibres.
Fibres could be used to make:
Thread
Rope
Cloth
Baskets
This represents another important technological development associated with early farming communities.
10. First Farmers and Herders: Archaeological Evidence
Archaeologists identify early farming and herding through several kinds of evidence.
Important evidence
1. Burnt grains
Help identify crops cultivated by ancient communities.
2. Animal bones
Help identify animals that people hunted, kept or consumed.
3. Houses
Provide evidence of settled life.
4. Tools
Show technological development and agricultural activities.
5. Pottery
Provides evidence of cooking and storage.
6. Burials
Provide clues about beliefs and customs.
7. Plant remains
Help reconstruct ancient agricultural practices.
11. Major Sites of the First Farmers and Herders
The most important sites appearing in the NCERT framework include:
1. Mehrgarh
2. Koldihwa
3. Mahagara
4. Gufkral
5. Burzahom
6. Chirand
7. Hallur
8. Paiyampalli
9. Daojali Hading
The archaeological evidence from these sites includes different combinations of grains, animal bones, houses, tools and pottery.
12. Mehrgarh
Location
Balochistan, present-day Pakistan
Mehrgarh is one of the most important early farming settlements of the north-western subcontinent.
It lies on a fertile plain near the Bolan Pass, an important route connecting the region with areas towards Iran.
Date
The earliest occupation at Mehrgarh belongs to approximately the 7th millennium BCE, with the settlement continuing through later periods.
Important crops
Wheat
Barley
Animals
Sheep
Goat
Cattle
Houses
Archaeologists found houses that were generally:
Square or rectangular
Divided into several compartments
Some compartments probably used for storage
Burials
Burial sites have also been discovered.
Some burials contained animals such as goats, providing evidence of particular mortuary practices.
Archaeological sequence
At the earliest levels, remains of wild animals such as deer and pig occur.
In later levels, sheep and goat become more prominent.
Still later, cattle bones become particularly important.
This sequence helps archaeologists understand changing economic practices at the site.
Exam shortcut
> Mehrgarh → Pakistan → c. 7000 BCE → Wheat + barley → Sheep + goat + cattle → Early farming
13. Koldihwa
Location
Uttar Pradesh
Koldihwa is associated with early agricultural evidence, particularly rice.
Important evidence
Rice
Fragmentary animal bones
Important caution about dates
Older textbook traditions sometimes gave very early dates for rice cultivation at Koldihwa. Modern archaeological interpretations have questioned some of those early dates.
Therefore, for a website, it is safer to write:
> Koldihwa is an important Neolithic site associated with early rice cultivation/evidence; the precise dating of its earliest rice remains has been debated.
Exam shortcut
Koldihwa → Uttar Pradesh → Rice
14. Mahagara
Location
Uttar Pradesh
Important evidence
Rice
Cattle
Settlement evidence
One notable feature associated with the site is hoof marks of cattle on clay surfaces, which provide evidence concerning cattle keeping.
Exam shortcut
Mahagara → Uttar Pradesh → Rice + cattle
15. Gufkral
Location
Kashmir
Gufkral is an important Neolithic site.
Evidence
Wheat
Lentil
Neolithic tools
Settlement remains
Exam shortcut
Gufkral → Kashmir → Wheat + lentil
16. Burzahom
Location
Kashmir
Burzahom is one of the most famous Neolithic sites of the Kashmir Valley.
The Archaeological Survey of India reports that systematic excavations were conducted at Burzahom from 1960 to 1971. The earliest structural remains include circular or oval subterranean dwelling pits, dug into the natural Karewa deposits.
Important features
Pit dwellings
Stone tools
Bone tools
Agriculture
Animal domestication
Burials
Evidence of dogs and other animals
Pit dwellings
The earliest houses included pits dug into the ground.
The pits could be:
Circular or oval
Narrower at the top
Wider towards the bottom
Flat-bottomed
Some had steps, hearths and other features. Evidence of posts and roofing material indicates that superstructures were constructed over some pits.
Crops
Wheat
Lentil
Animals
Evidence includes:
Dog
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
Buffalo
Exam shortcut
> Burzahom → Kashmir → Pit dwellings
17. Chirand
Location
Bihar
Chirand is an important Neolithic settlement.
Crops/remains
Wheat
Green gram
Barley
Animal remains
Buffalo
Ox
Other evidence
Bone tools
Settlement remains
Agricultural evidence
Exam shortcut
Chirand → Bihar → Wheat + green gram + barley
18. Hallur
Location
Karnataka
> Important correction for website content: Some older/secondary summaries incorrectly give Hallur as Andhra Pradesh. Hallur is in Karnataka.
Evidence
Millet
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
Pig
Hallur is important in discussions of South Indian Neolithic culture.
19. Paiyampalli
Location
Tamil Nadu
> Some older simplified study materials list Paiyampalli under Andhra Pradesh, but the archaeological site is in Tamil Nadu.
Evidence
Black gram
Millet
Cattle
Sheep
Pig
Exam shortcut
Paiyampalli → Tamil Nadu → Black gram + millet
20. Daojali Hading
Location
Dima Hasao district, Assam
Daojali Hading is one of the most important prehistoric archaeological sites of Northeast India.
Importance
Neolithic settlement
Polished stone tools
Ground stone implements
Evidence of early food-producing communities
It is especially important for Assam competitive examinations because it provides evidence of Neolithic culture in Northeast India.
Exam shortcut
> Daojali Hading → Assam → Neolithic
21. Major Site–Crop–Animal Table
Site Location Crops/plant evidence Animal evidence
Mehrgarh Pakistan Wheat, barley Sheep, goat, cattle
Koldihwa Uttar Pradesh Rice Fragmentary animal bones
Mahagara Uttar Pradesh Rice Cattle
Gufkral Kashmir Wheat, lentil —
Burzahom Kashmir Wheat, lentil Dog, cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo
Chirand Bihar Wheat, green gram, barley Buffalo, ox
Hallur Karnataka Millet Cattle, sheep, goat, pig
Paiyampalli Tamil Nadu Black gram, millet Cattle, sheep, pig
The crop-and-animal associations above correspond to the NCERT table of archaeological evidence, with the modern state location corrected where older secondary materials have mislabelled sites.
22. Mehrgarh: Living and Dying
Mehrgarh provides unusually valuable evidence because archaeologists found both settlement remains and burials.
Houses
Generally:
Square or rectangular
Several compartments
Some rooms probably used for storage
Burials
People were buried in designated places.
Animal remains, including goats, were found in association with some burials.
This provides evidence for mortuary customs and beliefs.
23. Daojali Hading: Special Importance
Daojali Hading is significant because it demonstrates that Neolithic developments were not confined to the north-western part of the subcontinent.
It represents the archaeological evidence for early farming-related communities in Northeast India.
For Assam examinations:
> Daojali Hading is to Assam what Burzahom is to Kashmir and Mehrgarh is to the north-western subcontinent in many basic site-identification questions.
24. Tribes and Early Farming Communities
Farmers and herders often lived in groups.
Such groups could develop:
Shared customs
Common traditions
Common language or cultural practices
Social leadership
Collective use of resources
However, prehistoric societies varied considerably, so these characteristics should not be treated as universal rules.
25. Division of Work
Farming societies required many different activities.
People were involved in:
Preparing fields
Sowing
Weeding
Harvesting
Processing grain
Grinding grain
Herding animals
Making tools
Making pots
Making baskets
Building houses
NCERT's discussion also emphasizes that both women and men participated in several activities, including making pots, baskets, tools and huts, and cultural activities.
26. Surplus Food
Agriculture could produce more food than was immediately consumed.
Such surplus could be:
Stored
Used as seed
Exchanged
Given as gifts
Used during periods of shortage
Important concept
Agricultural surplus → storage → exchange and social change
27. Agriculture and Population
Food production could support larger and more permanent communities.
As settlements became more established, people developed:
Houses
Storage facilities
Tools
Pottery
Social institutions
New forms of cooperation
Over long periods, these developments contributed to increasingly complex societies.
28. Animals and Their Uses
Different domesticated animals had different uses.
Cattle
Could provide:
Meat
Milk
Labour
Draught power
Sheep and goats
Could provide:
Meat
Milk
Wool/hair
Pigs
Primarily provided meat.
Dogs
Could assist with:
Hunting
Protection
Human-animal companionship
The precise uses varied by society and period.
29. Important Terms
Term Meaning
Domestication Human management and selective breeding of plants/animals
Neolithic New Stone Age
Palaeolithic Old Stone Age
Mesolithic Middle Stone Age
Herding Keeping and managing groups of animals
Pastoralism Livelihood substantially based on livestock
Cultivation Growing crops
Settlement Place where people live
Surplus Production beyond immediate requirements
Microlith Small stone tool
Celt Polished stone tool, commonly an axe/adze type
Mortar Vessel used for crushing/grinding
Pestle Implement used with a mortar
Archaeology Study of material remains of past societies
Artefact Human-made or human-modified object
Neolithic Revolution Term often used for the broad transition toward farming and settled life
30. Important Dates for Competitive Exams
c. 12,000 years ago
Major climatic changes after the last Ice Age created conditions associated with expanding grasslands and changing plant and animal distributions.
c. 10,000 years ago onward
Early domestication and food production developed in different parts of the world.
c. 7000 BCE
Early farming is well represented at Mehrgarh.
c. 7th millennium BCE onward
Mehrgarh developed as an important early farming settlement.
1960–1971
Major systematic excavation work at Burzahom was undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India.
Important caution
Do not present one exact date as the beginning of farming throughout India. The archaeological record demonstrates that farming emerged at different times in different regions.
31. Important People/Archaeologists
This topic is primarily based on archaeological evidence rather than historical personalities. Therefore, there are fewer "persons" to memorise than in later history.
Robert Bruce Foote
British geologist and archaeologist
Widely regarded as a pioneer of Indian prehistoric archaeology
Associated with the discovery of early Stone Age artefacts in India
Jean-François Jarrige
French archaeologist
Closely associated with major archaeological research at Mehrgarh
His work contributed significantly to understanding the early farming communities of the region.
Archaeological Survey of India
For Burzahom, the Archaeological Survey of India undertook systematic excavations from 1960 to 1971.
Exam caution: Do not invent a single "discoverer" for every archaeological site. Many sites were identified and studied through several archaeological surveys and excavation campaigns.
32. Site–Location Master Table
Site Modern location Key association
Mehrgarh Balochistan, Pakistan Early farming
Koldihwa Uttar Pradesh Rice
Mahagara Uttar Pradesh Rice + cattle
Gufkral Kashmir Wheat + lentil
Burzahom Kashmir Pit dwellings
Chirand Bihar Neolithic farming
Hallur Karnataka Millet + animals
Paiyampalli Tamil Nadu Black gram + millet
Daojali Hading Assam Neolithic culture
33. Most Important CTET One-Liners
1. Mehrgarh is located in present-day Pakistan.
2. Mehrgarh is associated with some of the earliest farming communities of the subcontinent.
3. Wheat and barley are associated with Mehrgarh.
4. Sheep and goats were important domestic animals at Mehrgarh.
5. Burzahom is located in Kashmir.
6. Burzahom is famous for pit dwellings.
7. Gufkral is also located in Kashmir.
8. Koldihwa is in Uttar Pradesh.
9. Koldihwa is associated with early rice evidence.
10. Mahagara is in Uttar Pradesh.
11. Mahagara provides evidence relating to rice and cattle.
12. Chirand is in Bihar.
13. Chirand is associated with Neolithic farming.
14. Daojali Hading is in Assam.
15. Daojali Hading is an important Neolithic site of Northeast India.
16. Hallur is in Karnataka.
17. Paiyampalli is in Tamil Nadu.
18. Agriculture encouraged people to remain near their fields.
19. Domestication involved the management and selective use of plants and animals.
20. Archaeologists use grains, animal bones, tools, houses, pottery and burials to study early farmers and herders.
34. Quick Memory Trick
M-K-M-G-B-C-H-P-D
Mehrgarh
Koldihwa
Mahagara
Gufkral
Burzahom
Chirand
Hallur
Paiyampalli
Daojali Hading
Remember:
> Mehrgarh – Wheat/Barley
Koldihwa – Rice
Mahagara – Rice/Cattle
Gufkral – Wheat/Lentil
Burzahom – Pit houses
Chirand – Wheat/Green gram/Barley
Hallur – Millet
Paiyampalli – Black gram/Millet
Daojali Hading – Assam/Neolithic
35. Final Exam Revision Chart
Climate change ~12,000 years ago
↓
Plants and animals changed/distributed differently
↓
Humans observed plant reproduction
↓
Plant cultivation
↓
Domestication of animals
↓
Farming + herding
↓
Settled/longer-term life
↓
Houses + pottery + storage
↓
Surplus food
↓
Larger and more organised communities
The five most important site associations
Mehrgarh → Early farming
Burzahom → Pit dwellings
Koldihwa → Rice
Chirand → Bihar + Neolithic
Daojali Hading → Assam + Neolithic
Government/official-source basis
NCERT — Class 6 History, Our Pasts–I, chapter on the transition from gathering to growing food; the chapter covers domestication, farming, herding, archaeological evidence, Mehrgarh and Daojali Hading.
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) — official archaeological resources and the detailed ASI excavation report for Burzahom, including its pit dwellings and excavation history.
NIOS — government educational material covering The Geographical Setting and Pre-Historic Cultures of India and ancient Indian history.
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